Prof. Michele Maggiore: Bridging Research and Outreach
Prof. Maggiore, your career spans various fields, from quantum field theory to gravitational waves and cosmology. Could you tell us about the key moments or breakthroughs that have shaped your research trajectory?
Yes, I think the key moments often come early in one's career because they steer you in one direction or another. I studied in Pisa, my hometown, in the 1980s, and at the time, theoretical physics was really synonymous with particle physics and quantum field theory. So, naturally, I focused on quantum field theory, which turned out to be a very useful foundation. It’s a kind of universal language that can be applied to many areas. It also gives you a technical strength that people coming from more phenomenological backgrounds may not always have.
Looking back, one of my strengths has been using the techniques and mindset of a quantum field theorist to tackle problems in gravitational waves and cosmology, where such tools are not as common. After completing a PhD centered on quantum field theory for high-energy physics, I was fortunate to secure a permanent position at a young age—27, in Pisa. This gave me the freedom to change direction, so I started exploring gravity and gravitational waves. It may seem surprising now, but at the time, general relativity wasn't even part of the curriculum in a top university like Pisa, so it was completely new territory for me.
The change felt like entering a pioneering field. The Virgo experiment was based in Pisa, but theorists there were focused on particle physics experiments. In general, back then, in the scientific community almost no one was thinking about how using gravitational waves as a tool for investigating fundamental physics or cosmology. Now, of course, it's a booming field, but at the time, it was uncharted territory. My theoretical background naturally led me to the idea of using gravitational waves to study fundamental physics. Today, it may seem obvious, but back then, it was quite an innovative approach.
So, my journey began with quantum field theory, where I had some exciting times, like working in Minnesota with the prominents Russian physicists Mikhail Shifman and Arkady Vainshtein, who had a 360-degree approach to the field. After returning to Pisa, I balanced periods of more formal theoretical work, in gravity and in other subjects, with applying my field theory background to gravitational-wave physics. Over the last decades, I've also been increasingly drawn to cosmology, partly due to the stimulating environment here in Geneva. Rather than a single breakthrough, I would say my scientific evolution has been characterized by this pattern of shifting focus and applying established techniques to new areas.
It seems that your breakthroughs were shaped by your pioneering approach. Would you say that being a pioneer was possible, first and foremost, because of your vision for a multidisciplinary approach across different fields?
Yes, that's true. I’ve always been very independent in my work. I was quite young when I started my first research group, around 27 or 28, and some of the people I worked with back then have gone on to achieve great things, like Alessandra Buonanno, who is now a director at a Max Planck Institute. My approach has always been driven by curiosity—I enjoy doing different things and frequently changing research topics. I have a strong passion for physics, and I love learning and exploring new areas, which naturally creates connections between different fields.
You are deeply involved in gravitational wave research, particularly through the Einstein Telescope and the LISA Cosmology Working Group. What excites you most about the future of gravitational wave astronomy, and its potential to transform our understanding of the universe?
We are living in a truly special time for gravitational wave astronomy. It’s been nine years since the first detection by LIGO, and since then, we’ve recorded around 100 events. These events, typically the coalescence of black holes, are just extraordinary. Imagine two black holes, each about 30 times the mass of our Sun, orbiting each other for millions of years and emitting gravitational waves before finally merging. The energy involved is mind-boggling: in the last ten milliseconds before they merge, they convert the equivalent of three solar masses into energy through gravitational waves. That’s like three Suns evaporating in ten milliseconds. During that time, the luminosity—the energy emitted per unit of time—is ten times greater than the combined electromagnetic luminosity of all the stars in all the galaxies in the universe.
So far, we’ve observed around 100 of these events, but we know that they actually occur about once every few seconds somewhere in the universe. Current detectors like LIGO and Virgo detect a few events per week, but as we move toward the next generation of experiments, such as the Einstein Telescope, we will be able to observe them far more frequently. With the next generation of detectors like the Einstein Telescope, we will observe up to 10^5 events per year, involving the coalescence of binary systems made of black holes and/or neutron stars; this is, roughly, one event every few minutes! Some of these events will have a very high signal-to-noise ratio, allowing us to reconstruct the gravitational wave signals with great accuracy. So you really learn a lot about gravity and about fundamental physics, as well as on astrophysics, and these observations will really be tools for exploring the depths of the universe.
Imagine that with the next generation of detectors we will be able to observe the merger of black holes up to redshift of order 100, that is something incredible. Gravitational waves carry completely different information from light and can reveal aspects of the universe that are otherwise hidden. Within the next decade, as these experiments of new generation will come online, we will gather an extraordinary amount of high-quality data. This large amount of high-quality data in unexplored domain offers the potential for revolutionary discoveries in fundamental physics, astrophysics, and cosmology.
Speaking of Athéna, the program you co-developed to bridge the gap between secondary school and university studies in physics and mathematics, what inspired you to create this initiative? How does it align with your vision for science education?
The idea for Athéna came from a combination of my roles as both a professor and a parent. At the time, my second daughter was finishing primary school, and her teacher suggested enrolling her in the Euler program at EPFL because of her talent in mathematics. I was unfamiliar with the program, so I looked into it. At that time, in Physics we were also facing a serious decline in student numbers, which was becoming a critical issue, and at the time I was the President of the Physics Section, so the problem was quite present to me. It was not standard for students in Geneva to pursue studies in physics or science at the AV短视频, and many were opting to go elsewhere. This trend didn’t reflect the high scientific quality of our programs or our strong rankings in physics; it seemed to be more about public perception.
The Euler program was designed for 'enfant haute potentiel,' or highly gifted students. However, I felt that this wasn’t the right approach for us. The concept of 'enfant haute potentiel' is quite vague, and many great scientists were not necessarily identified as prodigies during their teenage years. I wanted to create a program for high-school student, with a different philosophy—one centered on discovery. The idea was to introduce students to university-level studies in physics and mathematics, fields that often intimidate people. Many recognize the beauty of these subjects but also perceive them as very difficult, which is true to some extent.
We selected high school students for the program, keeping in mind that these are university courses, so they needed to be good students. We relied on schools to help with the selection process, but our goal was not to find 'geniuses.' Instead, we aimed to motivate students to experience the program over several months, which runs until Christmas.
Another important aspect of Athéna is integrating the students into real university courses rather than creating separate classes for them. They attend lectures alongside regular university students, experiencing what a university-level course is really like. Recognizing that this could be challenging, we implemented a tutoring system. In addition to the lectures and exercises, students work in small groups with a tutor who meets with them once a week to provide extra support. This approach has proven to be highly effective.
Now, we are in the program's tenth edition, with 50 to 70 students participating each year. These students also have the opportunity to take the university exam. Importantly, there is no penalty for failing—it won't be officially recorded. However, passing the exam brings a great sense of achievement, especially for a 17-year-old who has succeeded in a real university-level test. If they passed the exam and later enroll in physics or mathematics, they will automatically receive the credits for the course; they also have the option to retake the exam, and the exam taken in the context of the Athéna program will not count as an official attempt. This provides additional motivation for the students.
Another motivation for Athéna was addressing gender inclusivity. My approach was to handle this implicitly rather than explicitly. Programs in science that are targeted explicitly for girls can unintentionally send the message that these fields are not meant for them, implying they need extra help. I wanted to avoid reinforcing that notion. The approach we took with Athéna was different. It's clear that the program has led to significant improvements. While there are still some gaps, they don't stem from a lack of interest—Athéna has shown that 40% to 50% of participants are girls. Some may still hesitate to pursue physics, possibly because of the perceived difficulty or other factors, but the idea is to encourage everyone to come and give it a try.
The program provides excellent training for all students, and it can be particularly valuable for girls. We created an environment where, without making gender an explicit focus, girls could see for themselves that this field is indeed for them. The fact that 40% to 50% of Athéna students are girls speaks to this. Moreover, we often choose female tutors from among the university students, which helps lead by example and reinforces the message that women belong in science.
Unfortunately, I missed the remise des diplômes ceremony last year because I was abroad, although I usually attend. It must have been an especially interesting year, as it was the first time our Rectrice, Prof. Audrey Leuba, a woman, and our Dean, Prof. Costanza Bonadonna, also a woman, were both present. The Athéna program is now run by Professor Camille Bonvin, who is also a woman. So, the students were welcomed by an all-female leadership team. It really makes you ask—what was that old story about science not being for women?
The transition from secondary education to university can be challenging. Which aspects of the Athéna program do you believe are most effective in helping young students excel academically and adapt to university life?
The most important aspect of Athéna is that it helps students make more informed decisions about their future studies. While the program is not meant solve every problem, it gives participants a realistic preview of university life. After spending three months in a university course, they gain a more clear idea of what is expected in their studies. This experience can help alleviate fears—particularly in subjects like physics and mathematics, which are known to be demanding. It’s one thing to hear that a course is challenging in theory, and another to actually attend the classes and realize that you can keep up. For those who take the exam, passing can be a significant confidence booster.
According to recent statistics from the program’s coordinator over the last ten editions, 28% of the students who participate in the Athéna program passed the exam. Some of these students were still in their third year of high school, so succeeding in a university-level course at that stage can really build self-confidence. On the other hand, the program also offers valuable insight for those who decide that university-level physics or mathematics is not for them. It allows them to make that choice early on, rather than potentially wasting a year enrolling in a program that isn’t the right fit. In this sense, Athéna provides important information that helps students make better decisions about their academic paths.
Encouraging young people to pursue scientific careers is increasingly important in a world where science and technology are transforming society. In your opinion, what are the biggest challenges young people face when considering careers in physics or mathematics, and how can the Athéna program help them overcome these obstacles, which in a way expands on what you were saying before?
Compared to my generation, the biggest challenge young scientists face today is the difficulty of securing a permanent position, especially at an early stage in their careers. This issue has become a significant concern. When I was a young researcher, it was possible to secure a permanent position at a relatively young age, particularly at institutions like INFN in Italy or CNRS in France. I was fortunate to get a permanent position at 27. This early stability allowed me to explore fields like gravitational waves, which were not considered important at the time. It would have been impossible to take such a risk if I had to reapply for postdoc positions every two years; it simply wouldn't have been a wise career move.
Today, it seems that academic careers are heading in a direction where you either struggle to secure a professorship or you achieve it much later in life, particularly in Switzerland. One of the greatest challenges young researchers face is the extended postdoctoral phase after earning a PhD. This phase often involves moving from one university to another every two to three years. Such frequent relocations can make it difficult to maintain a stable family life, especially when partners or family members are living on opposite sides of the world.
These are significant challenges that go well beyond the scope of what Athéna can address. However, Athéna can help students choose a field they are passionate about, which is essential for navigating a difficult career path. To endure the challenges of an academic career in physics or mathematics, a strong passion for the field is essential. Without it, it would be difficult to persist through the obstacles. Athéna can contribute in helping students discover a field they are passionate about, making it more likely for them to thrive in the long run.鈥嬧�嬧�嬧��
As a co-developer of the Athéna program, how do you see its contribution to the Faculty of Science's mission to promote academic excellence and inspire future generations of scientists?
Athéna is undoubtedly a flagship program for both the Faculty of Science and the AV短视频. Yves Flueckiger (former UNIGE Rector, *ed. note*), for example, has often highlighted the program at the Dies academicus, especially in the presence of political authorities, citing it as a prime example of the university's initiatives. Athéna clearly contributes to the university's mission and its commitment to academic excellence.
The idea of offering course credits for Athéna participants was something I proposed from the start. However, it wasn’t initially an obvious choice for the university’s legal office, and I had to engage in discussions to get it approved. Eventually, the credit system was validated, allowing students to earn credits in advance. The credit system developed for Athéna has since been adapted for other initiatives. For example, Prof. Flueckiger extended this approach to a program for refugees who did not have the necessary documentation to formally enroll at the university. Through this initiative, refugees could still participate in courses and earn credits in advance. This adaptation, inspired by the Athéna program, provided a framework for recognizing academic achievement even in special circumstances. The model has since been applied in various contexts, setting a benchmark for similar educational programs.
Looking to the future, are there any new developments or directions for the Athéna program that particularly excite you? How do you see it evolving in the coming years?
After creating and organizing Athéna for the first few years, I eventually stepped down, and now Prof. Camille Bonvin has taken over as the coordinator. I’m particularly pleased that the program is now led by a woman, a brilliant young professor. This aligns with our philosophy of leading by example and demonstrating the possibilities for women in science, rather than just talking about them.
There comes a time when, after contributing your initial ideas, it’s important to allow new people to bring fresh perspectives and develop new initiatives. This is exactly what has happened with Athéna. The program has expanded significantly thanks to the commitment of its organizers. For example, a 'Mini-Athéna' initiative was introduced for younger students, and they've also extended the program to the Valais region, where last year they conducted weekly sessions, bringing the spirit of discovery to new communities.
Looking ahead, there are even more exciting ideas in the pipeline. I’m confident that under Camille’s leadership, the program will continue to grow and evolve, finding innovative ways to inspire young minds and expand the reach of science education. The enthusiasm and fresh perspectives of the new team ensure that Athéna will remain a dynamic and impactful program for years to come.
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